Edita Bjelić

A nonionic type V deep eutectic solvent (DES) combining hydrophobic (−)-menthol and hydrophilic resorcinol was prepared and investigated as a solvent for amphiphilic caffeine. Differential scanning calorimetry and thermogravimetric analysis were first used to determine the eutectic composition and characterize its thermal behavior. The menthol-to-resorcinol molar ratio of 2:1 was subsequently selected for physicochemical investigation. Clear homogeneous solutions containing up to 0.701 mol·kg⁻¹ caffeine were prepared, corresponding to 136 g of caffeine per kilogram of DES. Density, speed of sound, and viscosity were measured over the temperature range from 293.15 to 313.15 K. These data were used to evaluate the thermal expansion, volumetric and acoustic properties, intermolecular free length, and concentration and temperature dependences of viscous flow. The viscosity results were further analyzed using the Arrhenius, Jones–Dole, and Eyring–Feakins approaches and compared with the behavior of caffeine in water, ethylene glycol, and methyl salicylate. DFT calculations and molecular electrostatic potential surfaces were used to examine the local organization of the DES and the possible incorporation of caffeine through interactions with both its polar and less-polar regions. The combined experimental and computational approach provides a molecular and thermodynamic basis for evaluating this DES as a caffeine-solubilizing and delivery medium.

Hydrophobic eutectic solvent systems (ESSs) were prepared and characterized using temperature-dependent thermophysical and transport property measurements, supported by thermal analysis. The investigated systems comprise terpene-based mixtures, menthol:octanoic acid (1:2) and menthol:decanoic acid (1:1), and thymol-based mixtures, thymol:butanol (1:1), thymol:hexanol (1:1), thymol:octanoic acid (1:1), and thymol:oleic acid (1:1), as well as salt-containing ESSs based on tetrabutylphosphonium bromide (TBPBr), TBPBr:octanoic acid (1:1), and TBPBr:lauric acid (1:1). Density, dynamic viscosity, and electrical conductivity were measured at atmospheric pressure (p = 0.1 MPa) over 293.15–313.15 K. From density data, molar volumes and isobaric thermal expansion coefficients were calculated. The temperature dependence of viscosity was correlated with both Arrhenius and Vogel–Fulcher–Tammann equations. Conductivity results were used to compute molar conductivities, and the coupled conductivity–viscosity behavior was assessed via Walden analysis to quantify deviations from ideal electrolyte behavior and estimate ionicity. Thermal behavior and stability were evaluated by differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and simultaneous thermogravimetric analysis (TG/DSC). The resulting dataset enables a consistent comparison of volumetric, flow, and ion transport descriptors across fully molecular terpene-based mixtures and TBPBr-containing systems. Overall, the combined transport descriptors, including Walden analysis, provide a practical framework for distinguishing molecular from salt-containing hydrophobic ESS families and support formulation selection for temperature-dependent applications, particularly in biphasic extraction processes.

Solvents prepared from natural terpenes (menthol and thymol), as H-bond acceptors, and a series of organic acids (chain lengths of 8, 10, and 14 C atoms), as H-bond donors, were characterized and tested as reaction media for liquid–liquid extraction purposes. Due to their high hydrophobicity, they seem to be promising alternatives to conventional (nonpolar and toxic) solvents, since they possess relatively less toxic, less volatile, and consequently, more environmentally friendly characteristics. Assuming that the equilibrium is established between solvent and analyte during a ligandless procedure, it can be concluded that those nonpolar solvents can efficiently extract nonpolar analytes from the aqueous environment. Previous investigations showed a wide range of applications, including their use as solvents in extractions of metal cations, small molecules, and bioactive compounds for food and pharmaceutical applications. In this work, hydrophobic solvents based on natural terpenes, which showed chemical stability and desirable physicochemical and thermal properties, were chosen as potential reaction media in the liquid–liquid extraction (LLE) procedure for Pb(II) removal from aqueous solutions. Low viscosities and high hydrophobicities of prepared solvents were confirmed as desirable properties for their application. Extraction parameters were optimized, and chosen solvents were applied. The results showed satisfactory extraction efficiencies in simple and fast procedures, followed by low solvent consumption. The best results (98%) were obtained by the thymol-based solvent, thymol–decanoic acid (Thy-DecA) 1:1, followed by L-menthol-based solvents: menthol–octanoic acid (Men-OctA) 1:1 with 97% and menthol–decanoic acid (Men-DecA) 1:1 with 94.3% efficiency.