Eleftherios Koufakis

Background/Objectives: West Nile virus (WNV) is a persistent mosquito-borne threat in Greece. This study examined whether online information-seeking patterns reflected official WNV surveillance during 2024–2025, with Crete providing descriptive field-level One Health preparedness context. Methods: Official national surveillance data were compared with country-level Google Trends relative search volume and Greek-language Wikipedia pageviews, focusing on weekly locally acquired West Nile neuroinvasive disease/central nervous system (WNND/CNS) cases. The Crete component separately summarized regional One Health preparedness. Results: Greece reported 220 locally acquired WNV cases (157 WNND/CNS) in 2024 and 96 (76 WNND/CNS) in 2025. Wikipedia pageviews showed the strongest full-year associations with WNND/CNS activity when pageviews followed cases by one week (2024: Spearman rho = 0.802; 2025: rho = 0.763; both p < 0.001). Google Trends showed weaker associations at the same lag (2024: rho = 0.402, p = 0.003; 2025: rho = 0.452, p < 0.001). Transmission-period sensitivity analyses attenuated several associations: the 2025 Wikipedia associations and the Google Trends associations in both years were not statistically significant. The first-difference lag analysis identified no leading digital signal. Conclusions: Wikipedia showed more stable language-specific temporal concordance with national surveillance than Google Trends. However, the digital indicators reflected concurrent or lagging public attention and did not demonstrate predictive capacity. The Crete component separately illustrates how regional One Health preparedness complements national surveillance and risk communication.

In Europe, travel-associated Legionnaires’ disease (TALD) cases require timely environmental investigations to support risk assessment, rapid control measures, and prompt reporting of investigation findings to the European Legionnaires’ Disease Surveillance Network (ELDSNet). This study evaluated TALD-related environmental investigations conducted during 2025 and early 2026 in Crete, Greece, following notifications through ELDSNet. Overall, 30 notifications corresponded to 24 unique confirmed TALD cases with illness onset in 2025 and 24 implicated hotels, with some cases involving stays in multiple hotels and Regional Units and clusters identified in some implicated hotels. The investigation framework combined microbiological, physicochemical, and operational data, focusing on delays from symptom onset, notification, sampling, and laboratory reporting. Overall, 516 environmental samples were collected, of which 503 yielded valid analytical results. Among the 503 samples analyzed, Legionella spp. were detected at ≥50 colony-forming units per liter (CFU/L) in 127 samples (25.25%). This included 123 samples positive for L. pneumophila (24.45%), of which 31 were serogroup 1 (6.16%). Concentrations exceeding the 1000 CFU/L threshold were recorded in 53 samples (10.54%). Operational indicators varied, with median values of 31.0 days for reporting delay (RD), 14.5 days from notification to first sampling (TTF), 47.5 days from symptom onset to first sampling (TDS), and 67.0 days from symptom onset to first laboratory result (OELR). The findings underscore the necessity to document response delays, enhance inspector capacity and cross-regional coordination, and integrate microbiological results with operational indicators. This integration is crucial for facilitating earlier environmental risk assessments, expediting reporting, and implementing more effective TALD public health interventions.

In Europe, travel-associated Legionnaires’ disease (TALD) cases require timely environmental investigations to support risk assessment, rapid control measures, and prompt reporting of investigation findings to the European Legionnaires’ Disease Surveillance Network (ELDSNet). This study evaluated TALD-related environmental investigations conducted during 2025 and early 2026 in Crete, Greece, following notifications through ELDSNet. Overall, 30 notifications corresponded to 24 unique confirmed TALD cases with illness onset in 2025 and 24 implicated hotels, with some cases involving stays in multiple hotels and Regional Units and clusters identified in some implicated hotels. The investigation framework combined microbiological, physicochemical, and operational data, focusing on delays from symptom onset, notification, sampling, and laboratory reporting. Overall, 516 environmental samples were collected, of which 503 yielded valid analytical results. Among the 503 analyzed samples, Legionella spp. was detected at ≥50 CFU/L in 127 samples (25.25%). This included 123 samples positive for L. pneumophila (24.45%), of which 31 were serogroup 1 (6.16%). Concentrations exceeding the >1000 CFU/L threshold were recorded in 53 samples (10.54%). Operational indicators varied, with median values of 31.0 days for reporting delay (RD), 14.5 days from notification to first sampling (TTF), 47.5 days from symptom onset to first sampling (TDS), and 67.0 days from symptom onset to first laboratory result (OELR). These findings support documenting response delays, strengthening inspector capacity and cross-regional coordination, and integrating microbiological results with operational indicators for timelier source attribution, faster reporting, and TALD public health action.

Travel-associated Legionnaires’ disease (TALD) investigations in hotels generate extensive environmental monitoring data. However, the occupational implications for workers who operate, maintain, clean, or inspect the same systems are rarely assessed. We developed a hybrid framework integrating a semi-quantitative environmental hazard model with deterministic Quantitative Microbial Risk Assessment (QMRA). In the first model, culture concentration bands were combined with physicochemical deviation indicators (temperature, free residual chlorine, and pH) to derive point-level hazard (Hi) and zone-level hazard (Hz). In the second model, a job-based presence matrix was combined with zone-specific serogroup-based severity using a simplified World Health Organization (WHO)-style 3×3 likelihood–severity approach. L. pneumophila (≥50 CFU/L) was detected in 29.94% of water samples and was significantly associated with low chlorine (Hz = 2.607), followed by machinery rooms (Hz= 2.022) and guest rooms (Hz= 1.874). These findings support the integration of worker protection into water safety management, particularly in areas and groups overlooked in routine investigations.

Mosquito-borne diseases remain a relevant public health concern in Greece, where surveillance, preparedness, risk communication, and blood safety measures may be affected during periods of increased transmission or imported case detection. This retrospective ecological infodemiology study explored associations between official human mosquito-borne disease data in Greece and digital information-seeking activity during 2024–2025. Official epidemiological data were obtained from the Hellenic National Public Health Organization (EODY). Google Trends Relative Search Volume (RSV) values and Greek-language Wikipedia pageviews were extracted for predefined mosquito-borne disease indicators. Inferential analysis focused on West Nile virus (WNV). In 2024, Greece recorded 220 domestic and 6 imported WNV cases, with 35 deaths. Monthly domestic WNV cases showed significant positive associations with Google Trends RSV for both “ιός του Δυτικού Νείλου” (Spearman rho = 0.694, p = 0.012; Pearson r = 0.920, p < 0.001) and “West Nile virus” (Spearman rho = 0.897, p < 0.001; Pearson r = 0.951, p < 0.001), and with Greek-language Wikipedia pageviews for “ιός του Δυτικού Νείλου” (Spearman rho = 0.758, p = 0.004; Pearson r = 0.917, p < 0.001). Local surveillance data from Crete additionally documented human events, vector presence, winter mosquito activity, and negative molecular testing of examined mosquito samples. Digital attention indicators showed their clearest and most epidemiologically coherent pattern for WNV. These findings support cautious use of digital attention indicators as complementary measures of public attention and situational awareness.

Travel-associated Legionnaires’ disease (TALD) events can generate public concern when environmental surveillance findings are communicated without an adequate explanation of the results. This study examined how surveillance data on Legionella spp. were framed and amplified during a TALD-related investigation in Crete, Greece, from June to July 2025. A mixed infodemiology and environmental surveillance approach was applied, including the analysis of 95 online media items across nine languages, Google Trends search-interest data, and hotel water-system surveillance data from epidemiologically linked facilities. Sampling conducted in a limited number of hotels associated with TALD cases indicated that approximately 50% of the water samples exceeded the laboratory reporting limit of ≥50 CFU/L for Legionella spp., a numerically correct but context-specific finding. Numerical misframing occurred in 83.7%, 41.7%, and 18.2% of Greek, German, and English language items, respectively, with significant differences across language markets (χ² (8) = 43.75, p < 0.0001; Cramér’s V = 0.679). Public search-interest signals were transient and geographically limited. Environmental surveillance showed no increase in Legionella pneumophila risk, with similar proportions of samples ≥50 CFU/L in the pre-/peri-infodemic (January–July 2025) and post-infodemic (August–November 2025) periods (23.11% [95% CI: 18.21–28.87] vs. 24.45% [19.34–30.41]) and similar exceedance of ≥1000 CFU/L (13.45% [9.69–18.36] vs. 14.41% [10.45–19.55]). Overall, the loss of contextual interpretation of surveillance results and conflation of laboratory reporting limits with regulatory thresholds were associated with inconsistent public risk perception, without evidence of increased environmental hazard.

Travel-associated Legionnaires’ disease (TALD) events can generate public concern when environmental surveillance findings are communicated without adequate ex-planation of the results. This study examined how surveillance data on Legionella spp. were framed and amplified during a TALD-related investigation in Crete, Greece, between June and July 2025. A mixed infodemiology and environmental surveillance approach was applied, including analysis of 95 online media items across nine lan-guages, Google Trends search-interest data, and hotel water-system surveillance data from epidemiologically linked facilities. Sampling conducted in a limited number of hotels associated with TALD cases indicated that approximately 50% of water samples exceeded the laboratory reporting limit of ≥50 CFU/L, a numerically correct but con-text-specific finding. Numerical misframing occurred in 83.7%, 41.7%, and 18.2% of Greek, German, and English language items, respectively, with significant differences across language markets (χ² (8) = 43.75, p < 0.0001; Cramér’s V = 0.679). Public search-interest signals were transient and geographically limited. Environmental sur-veillance showed no increase in Legionella pneumophila risk, with similar proportions of samples ≥50 CFU/L in the pre-/peri-infodemic (Jan–Jul 2025) and post-infodemic (Aug–Nov 2025) periods (23.11% [95% CI: 18.21–28.87] vs. 24.45% [19.34–30.41]) and similar exceedance of ≥1000 CFU/L (13.45% [9.69–18.36] vs. 14.41% [10.45–19.55]). Overall, loss of contextual interpretation of surveillance results and conflation of laboratory re-porting limits with regulatory thresholds were associated with inconsistent public risk perception, without evidence of increased environmental hazard.

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Between April and May 2025, an outbreak of travel-associated Legionnaires’ disease (TALD) occurred, involving six cases at a hotel in Crete, Greece. Including two cases reported in 2023 and two additional cases from 2016 to 2017, ten cases were associated with this accommodation site. All TALD cases were reported by the European Legionnaires’ Disease Surveillance Network (ELDSNet). In compliance with the European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control (ECDC) surveillance and investigation protocols for hotels associated with the patient’s stay, local public health authorities conducted on-site inspections at the hotel by collecting water samples and performing risk assessments, while simultaneously recording the required epidemiological, environmental, and physicochemical data. A total of 181 statistically analyzed water samples showed positive rates for L. pneumophila of 12.71% (95% CI: 7.86–17.56) for (≥50 CFU/L) and 6.08% (95% CI: 2.60–9.56) for (≥1000 CFU/L). Risk assessments identified 18 stagnation points, systemic maintenance deficiencies, and high cumulative structural (30/52) and water (36/71) system risk scores. Low microbiological positivity of water samples does not necessarily equate to low risk, thus necessitating continuous risk assessment, implementation of Water Safety Plans (WSPs), and integrated monitoring by accommodation facilities to prevent LD cases.