Dheanda Absharina

Nitrogen supplements such as yeast extract and peptone/tryptone are the main cost drivers in bacterial cellulose (BC) fermentation. This study evaluated fourteen cereal, pseudo-cereal and legume flours as media substitutes for Komagataeibacter xylinus DSMZ 2325 using two strategies: (i) constant total nitrogen (CTN; 0.6 g·L⁻¹) and (ii) constant nitrogen-source mass (CNSM; 5.0 g·L⁻¹). BC yield (dry g·L⁻¹) was determined under static cultivation and analyzed by ANOVA, correlation statistics and techno-economic assessment. Flour type and substitution level significantly influenced BC production (p < 0.05). CTN substitution enhanced production, with the highest peak yields obtained for W-BC, C-BC, M-BC and SP-BC (6.68–8.97 g·L⁻¹). CNSM substitution limited production, with O-BC and T-BC performing best (4.24–5.14 g·L⁻¹). Techno-economic analysis further showed that the CTN regime substantially improved cost efficiency and reduced BC unit production cost, with the maximum reduction observed for TR-BC at 75% substitution (from 0.27 to 0.08 €/g; 70.37%) relative to the corresponding CTN HS control. Under the CNSM regime, the maximum reduction was observed for BY-BC at 50% substitution (from 0.25 to 0.07 €/g; 72.00%) relative to the corresponding CNSM HS control. These findings demonstrate that graded nitrogen substitution is an effective strategy for economically sustainable and scalable BC production.

Bacterial cellulose (BC) production is limited by the high cost of refined nitrogen sources such as yeast extract and tryptone. While carbon source substitution has been widely studied, approaches for nitrogen replacement remain underexplored. Here, we evaluated cereal and pseudo-cereal flours as low-cost nitrogen alternatives for Komagataeibacter xylinus DSMZ 2325 under static fermentation using two nitrogen substitution strategies: constant total nitrogen (CTN) and constant nitrogen source mass (CNSM). Thirteen flour variants were screened, with maximum BC yields of 3.40 g/L (soy), 3.17 g/L (teff), 2.74 g/L (quinoa), and 1.94 g/L (triticale) under the CTN strategy, in several cases surpassing the modified HS control. Structural analyses confirmed that flour-derived BC retained the defining characteristics of high-quality cellulose, including high crystallinity, robust fibrillar networks, and thermal stability. Soy consistently produced the highest volumetric yields, whereas triticale exhibited the greatest fold-increase compared to the control, highlighting the distinct nutritional and compositional contributions. These results demonstrate that flour-based media provide a viable strategy to reduce production costs while tailoring BC properties through substrate choice. By shifting the focus from carbon to nitrogen optimization, this study introduces a sustainable and scalable approach to bioprocessing using agro-derived raw materials. Key Points: • Flour-based nitrogen sources replace costly yeast extract and tryptone in BC media • Triticale, teff, quinoa, and soy influence BC yield and cellulose fibril formation • Agro-flour substrates offer low-cost, sustainable bacterial cellulose production

Bacterial cellulose (BC), a nanostructured biopolymer produced by Komagateibacter spp., exhibits remarkable mechanical strength, purity, and biocompatibility, making it highly attractive for applications in biomedicine, food, and sustainable materials. Despite its potential, monoculture fermentation suffers from low yield and limited scalability. This review highlights the innovative application of co-culture fermentations as a novel strategy, where Komagataeibacter is paired with complementary microorganisms such as yeasts, lactic acid bacteria, and photosynthetic microbes. This approach has emerged as a promising solution to overcome the limitations of monoculture by enhancing BC productivity, tailoring material properties, and improving sustainability. We explore the synergistic interactions within co-cultures, including metabolic cross-feeding and in situ polymer integration, while also addressing critical challenges such as microbial stability and operational complexity. Unlike previous reviews focused primarily on BC biosynthesis, applications, or genetic engineering, this article emphasizes co-culture fermentation with Komagataeibacter as a novel and underexplored strategy to improve the yield, functionality, and scalability of BC production.

The rising demand for sustainable materials has led to a significant focus on developing resources from renewable systems, particularly through the integration of biological processes. Bacterial cellulose (BC) has emerged as a highly promising biomaterial, gaining attention across multiple industries, such as food, pharmaceuticals, materials science, and textiles, due to its renewable, biodegradable, and eco-friendly characteristics. Within the fashion industry, bacterial cellulose (BC) biofabrication presents a groundbreaking method for producing sustainable textiles and vegan leather. This systematic review emphasizes BC’s pivotal role in advancing sustainable materials, addressing challenges like low yields, strain instability, and high production costs, and exploring innovative biofabrication techniques to overcome these barriers. Current advancements aim to enhance the thickness, uniformity, and mechanical properties of BC layers by optimizing the environmental and nutritional conditions during Komagataeibacter cultivation and leveraging coculturing methods. Furthermore, recent innovations in synthetic biology and genetic engineering have opened new avenues for improving BC biosynthesis, making it a viable solution for the sustainable fashion industry. This review explores three core topics: (1) bacterial cellulose and its applications, (2) the biofabrication of BC for vegan leather, and (3) emerging innovations and patents utilizing bacterial cellulose as a sustainable industrial biomaterial.