Sławomir Kotylak

Energy transformation is essential for reducing electricity production costs and building a competitive advantage for each country. Its success relies on balancing environmental goals with the need to maintain secure energy supplies, keep prices at an acceptable level for consumers, and ensure the economy’s competitiveness. Although the literature presents various investment constraints for onshore wind farms, little is known about the regulations that were supposed to protect the natural environment, and in practice, they turned out to be legal constraints on the development of onshore wind farms. This research aims to eliminate this research gap, and identify the legal limitations hindering the development of onshore wind farms, using Poland as a case study. It was examined whether legal provisions aimed at ensuring sustainable development could negatively impact the growth of onshore wind farms. The systematic literature study was supplemented by reviewing documents (available in the Polish Parliament and the Government Legislation Centre) relating to the location policy for onshore wind farms. The findings reveal that unfavourable legal solutions introduced in Poland over nearly a decade have severely obstructed the growth of onshore wind energy. This has led to harmful and measurable effects on society and the economy. Therefore, it is suggested that the creation of energy market regulations should be subject to greater stakeholder oversight. This study fits into the research field on legal barriers, classified as any negative phenomena and processes that do not contribute to achieving assumed goals.

In the forthcoming decades, the energy sector will confront significant transitions related to climate change, supply stability, and energy poverty. The initial two aspects have undergone thorough scientific analysis, whilst the third has received comparatively less analysis despite its significant impact on the lives of millions. Using a systematic literature review, laws and regulations and document analysis, and based on the assumption of an energy ladder, this study provides an overview of energy poverty and its implications. The research focuses on energy poverty in developed countries and answers whether the European Union’s implemented and planned actions to reduce greenhouse gas emissions cause energy poverty. Based on the Polish case, the study shows that the EU’s scheduled actions aimed to stabilise climate change, although right in intention, require modification because they do not fully consider the significant economic and energy development diversity of the European Union Member States and may increase energy poverty affecting the European inhabitants. The findings show that due to the implementation of the EU Emission Trading System 2 in 2027, transport costs may increase by almost one-third, which will raise the prices of goods and services and affect energy poverty. This study develops the stream of research on energy poverty, modifies the concept of the energy ladder and shows threats resulting from the ETS2 implementation. The paper proposes the avenues of future research.