Francesco Salmaso

Repeated machinery traffic can compromise vineyard soil physical quality, and older vineyards are characterised by longer-time machinery traffic. However, the relationship between vineyard age and soil compaction depends on management and local soil conditions. This study investigated age-associated compaction patterns under contrasting soil management. Moreover, we assessed whether traffic-induced topsoil compaction persisted across textures. Penetration resistance, volumetric water content (VWC), bulk density (ρb), soil organic matter (SOM), and plateau slope of the penetration profile were measured in four farms. First, three coeval vineyard blocks were analysed to quantify within-farm variability. Second, vineyards of different ages under different soil management were compared to assess age-associated patterns. Finally, a complementary experiment examined texture-related persistence of compaction using matched wheel-track and inter-row-centre observations. The coeval blocks differed in penetration-profile characteristics but VWC, ρb, SOM, and plateau slope were comparable. Under regular decompaction, the oldest vineyard had higher VWC and SOM and lower ρb. No consistent age-associated gradient was observed without decompaction. In the wheel track, mean cone index (CI) over the 0–45 cm layer was lower in the farm that regularly applied decompaction than in the one that did not. In clay soil, mean CI over 10 ± 2.5 cm was 80.5% higher in wheel tracks than at inter-row centres. The paired, block-aware texture analysis did not confirm a difference in the traffic effect between clay and clay-loam soils, while the clay traffic contrast remained significant after accounting for paired changes in VWC and ρb. These findings provide an initial indication that age-associated soil physical patterns may differ under contrasting decompaction management, although traffic imprints persisted in wheel tracks.

Climate change poses increasing challenges to Reclamation Consortia, which must ensure equitable and sustainable water distribution under conditions of growing scarcity. This study evaluates supplemental irrigation management strategies adopted by three Reclamation Consortia in the Venetian Plain (Northeast Italy): Piave, Veneto Orientale and Acque Risorgive. The Consortia were selected based on their territorial and structural characteristics, as well as their different approach to managing water resources. This study fills a critical gap by integrating FAO AquaCrop-based estimates of irrigation needs for the 2022 and 2023 irrigation seasons in maize, grapevine and radicchio with an institutional analysis of Reclamation Consortia, offering an innovative framework that links technical and governance aspects of sustainable water management. Results reveal considerable variability among Consortia in terms of organizational structure, technological adoption, and resilience to drought. The 2022 season, characterized by extreme drought, required substantially higher irrigation volumes across all crops and soil types with significant differences compared to 2023 (p < 0.001), particularly for maize and grapevine (73% more irrigation water in maize). Well-drained soils and sprinkler irrigated crops showed the highest water demand (+45 mm compared to drip irrigation, p = 0.058), while loamy soils and drip systems proved more efficient. The Piave Consortium demonstrated the most advanced management system, supported by digital tools and structured rotation schedules. Nevertheless, structural factors, such as geographic location and infrastructure capacity, play a critical role in shaping resilience, leading to higher vulnerability in Consortia like Veneto Orientale and robustness in Acque Risorgive during drought conditions (i.e., 2022). Overall, the findings highlight the need to strengthen the main pillars of adaptation in irrigated agriculture, i.e., technology (decision support systems), governance (inter-Consortium coordination), and infrastructure (storage facilities), to promote flexible irrigation planning, enhance adaptive capacity, and ensure long-term sustainability under changing climatic conditions. These strategies also contribute directly to the achievement of Sustainable Development Goals 2, 6, and 13 (Zero Hunger, Clean Water and Sanitation, and Climate Action) by improving water use efficiency, securing crop production, and enhancing resilience to climate change.