Emanuele Lubian

Birds exhibit naturally high blood glucose concentrations, a physiological trait that, unlike in mammals, does not lead to typical pathological consequences such as diabetes mellitus. This review explores the unique features of glucose metabolism in birds, with a particular focus on the anatomy and function of the avian pancreas, the roles of key hormones such as insulin and glucagon, as well as the distinctive mechanisms of glucose absorption and utilization. Evidence suggests a dominant role of glucagon over insulin, along with adaptations such as insulin resistance and antioxidant defenses, which may contribute to birds’ apparent resilience to hyperglycemia-related complications. Despite these adaptations, cases of diabetes mellitus have been reported, primarily as secondary to other pathologies, including pancreatitis, hemochromatosis, infections, and toxicities. Diagnosis remains challenging due to interspecies variability and the lack of standardized assays. Treatment, mainly via insulin therapy, has shown mixed outcomes, often limited by the underlying disease severity. This review highlights the need for species-specific diagnostic tools and a deeper investigation into the pathophysiology of glucose regulation in birds, aiming to improve clinical outcomes, develop standardized therapies, and ultimately broaden the perspectives of comparative endocrinology.

Understanding reproductive biology and associated disorders is crucial for the clinical management of chelonians, particularly those maintained in captivity. This literature review presents an overview of the main pathological conditions affecting the female reproductive tract of these animals. For each condition, practical and effective diagnostic and therapeutic procedures are detailed. Commonly observed disorders include dystocia, ectopic eggs, follicular stasis, infertility, oophoritis, salpingitis, cloacitis, cloacal or oviductal prolapse, neoplasms, and ovarian torsion. The fundamental approach to these conditions always involves a thorough clinical examination, which requires extensive knowledge of the species, a clinical history, and management practices. Diagnostic procedures include physical exams, imaging techniques (ultrasound, radiography, CT, endoscopy), and surgical interventions. A shared feature of many pathologies is the influence of management errors and the presence of non-specific clinical signs.