Jesús Martín Muñoz-Bautista

In this study, the cytotoxicity of the pesticides 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) and imidacloprid was evaluated in erythrocytes from different ABO blood groups by measuring partial hemoglobin release. The results showed significant differences in susceptibility to oxidative damage among blood types. In addition, the erythroprotective effect of C-phycocyanin was determined, showing up to 89% inhibition of hemolysis at 1 mg/mL, with significant differences among blood groups. To simulate physiological conditions, an in vitro digestion model was applied to obtain bioavailable fractions of the pesticides and C-phycocyanin. After digestion, the pesticides retained their ability to induce damage, whereas C-phycocyanin preserved its protective effect, although at a reduced level, reaching a maximum inhibition of 24%. At the computational level, molecular docking using AutoDock Vina was performed between the beta subunit of C-phycocyanin and 2,4-D, yielding a binding energy of –4 to –5 kcal/mol at 9 interaction sites, supported by ionic and hydrogen bonds. These results highlight the relevance of C-phycocyanin as a natural candidate for mitigating pesticide-induced cytotoxicity under physiologically relevant conditions.

In this study, the cytotoxicity of the pesticides 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) and imidacloprid was evaluated on erythrocytes from different ABO blood groups, through the assessment of partial hemoglobin release. The results showed significant differences in susceptibility to oxidative damage according to blood type: for 2,4-D, the sensitivity order was A+ > B+ > O+, whereas for imidacloprid it was B+ > A+ > O+. Furthermore, the erythroprotective effect of C-phycocyanin was determined, showing up to 89% inhibition of hemolysis at 1 mg/mL, with significant variations among blood groups. To simulate physiological conditions, an in vitro digestion was performed to obtain bioavailable fractions of both pesticides and C-phycocyanin. After digestion, pesticides retained their ability to induce damage, while C-phycocyanin maintained its protective effect, although reduced, reaching a maximum of 24% inhibition. At the computational level, molecular docking was carried out with AutoDock Vina between the beta subunit of C-phycocyanin and 2,4-D, reporting a binding energy value of –4 to –5 kcal/mol across nine interaction sites, mainly favored by ionic interactions and hydrogen bonds. These findings suggest that the protective mechanism of C-phycocyanin is mainly associated with its antioxidant scavenging capacity.

The extensive use of conventional pesticides has been a fundamental strategy in modern agriculture for controlling pests and increasing crop productivity; however, their improper application poses significant risks to human health and environmental sustainability. This review compiles scientific evidence linking pesticide exposure to oxidative stress and genotoxic damage, particularly affecting rural populations and commonly consumed foods, even at levels exceeding the maximum permissible limits in fruits, vegetables, and animal products. Additionally, excessive pesticide use has been shown to alter soil microbiota, negatively compromising long-term agricultural fertility. In response to these challenges, recent advances in nanotechnology offer promising alternatives. This review highlights the development of nanopesticides designed for controlled release, improved stability, and targeted delivery of active ingredients, thereby reducing environmental contamination and increasing efficacy. Moreover, emerging nanobiosensor technologies, such as e-nose and e-tongue systems, have shown potential for real-time monitoring of pesticide residues and soil health. Although pesticides are still necessary, it is crucial to implement stricter laws and promote sustainable solutions that ensure safe and responsible agricultural practices. The need for evidence-based public policy is emphasized to regulate pesticide use and protect both human health and agricultural resources.

The extensive use of conventional pesticides has been a fundamental strategy in modern agriculture for controlling pests and increasing crop productivity; however, their improper application poses significant risks to human health and environmental sustainability. This review compiles scientific evidence linking pesticide exposure to oxidative stress and genotoxic damage particularly affecting rural populations and commonly consumed foods, even at levels exceeding the maximum permissible limits in fruits, vegetables, and animal products. Additionally, excessive pesticide use has been shown to alter soil microbiota, negatively compromising long-term agricultural fertility. In response to these challenges, recent advances in nanotechnology offer promising alternatives. This review highlights the development of nanopesticides designed for controlled release, improved stability, and targeted delivery of active ingredients, thereby reducing environmental contamination and increasing efficacy. Moreover, emerging nanobiosensor technologies, such as e-nose and e-tongue systems, have shown potential for real-time monitoring of pesticide residues and soil health. Although pesticides are still necessary, it is crucial to implement stricter laws and promote sustainable solutions that ensure safe and responsible agricultural practices. The need for evidence-based public policy is emphasized to regulate pesticide use and protect both human health and agricultural resources.