Walter Shiba

Heartwater, caused by Ehrlichia ruminantium and transmitted by Amblyomma ticks, remains one of the most economically significant tick-borne diseases affecting livestock in South Africa. However, its long-term epidemiological and financial patterns remain insufficiently quantified. This study analyzed heartwater cases recorded between 2010 and 2022 to determine species-specific, seasonal, and temporal trends, and to estimate the associated economic burden of heartwater in Lephalale Municipality, Limpopo. The overall disease prevalence was 34.11%, confirming sustained endemicity throughout the study period. Logistic regression showed that sheep exhibited 69% higher odds of infection compared to cattle, while “other species” showed significantly lower risk. Seasonal patterns revealed heightened prevalence in summer and autumn, corresponding to periods of increased Amblyomma tick activity. Although significant year-to-year variability was observed, no linear temporal trend emerged, suggesting that irregular climatic fluctuations rather than progressive ecological change primarily shaped interannual patterns. The disease imposed substantial financial losses amounting to ZAR 765,720, with mortality contributing over 80% of total costs and cattle experiencing the greatest economic impact. These results demonstrate that heartwater dynamics are strongly influenced by species susceptibility, climatic seasonality, and variable environmental conditions, all of which intensify the financial burden on livestock systems. The findings underscore the need for strengthened integrated tick management, climate-informed surveillance, and species-targeted interventions.

Malignant catarrhal fever (MCF) is a highly lethal viral disease of cattle that poses a persistent threat to livestock production in wildlife–livestock interface areas of Southern Africa. Despite its recognized clinical severity, the economic burden of the disease remains poorly quantified in South African production systems. This study assessed the long-term economic impact of malignant catarrhal fever on cattle production in Lephalale Municipality, Limpopo Province, South Africa, using a retrospective analysis covering the period from 2001 to 2021. The study combined confirmed case records, estimated mortalities, and region-specific production parameters to quantify both direct and indirect economic losses. Direct losses included mortality-related financial costs and the expenditure on treatment, while indirect losses encompassed reduced productivity, diminished milk yields, and associated declines in overall herd performance. The results show that MCF imposed substantial financial burdens on cattle producers, with mortality contributing to more than ninety percent of total losses. The total economic losses over the study period were substantial, amounting to approximately R 1.55 million, driven primarily by high mortality-related costs. Annual losses displayed considerable variability, reflecting the sporadic nature of the outbreaks and the fluctuations in the wildlife–livestock interactions. The spatial analysis revealed that most cases occur in wards situated adjacent to wildlife conservation areas, where cattle are exposed to virus-carrying wildebeest populations. Seasonal patterns indicated a higher disease occurrence during the spring and winter, aligning with established transmission dynamics. Although a gradual decline in both cases and associated losses was observed over the study period, episodic outbreaks continued to exert significant economic shocks on affected farming households. The findings reaffirm MCF as a persistent and high-impact constraint to cattle production in interface zones and highlight the need for improved surveillance, integrated land-use planning, and sustained investment in targeted disease control measures.

Access to quality seed is a critical driver of smallholder productivity and household food security in South Africa, yet rural communities in the Eastern Cape continue to rely heavily on informal seed systems. Limited seed literacy among farmers and vendors is widely recognized as a constraint to the effective selection and use of high-quality seed. The purpose of this study is to assess seed literacy levels among smallholder farmers in KwaMkhiva village and evaluate how knowledge gaps shape farmers’ seed sourcing patterns and access to quality seed. The study hypothesizes that low seed literacy significantly increases reliance on informal seed systems and reduces adoption of certified or improved varieties. A quantitative, cross-sectional survey design was used to collect data from 50 smallholder farmers and 12 informal seedling vendors, complemented by semi-structured interviews with three extension officers. Descriptive statistics, chi-square tests, correlation analysis, and a composite Seed Literacy Index (SLI) were employed to assess literacy dimensions and their association with seed choices. Findings show that 49% of farmers rely on local markets and 40% use farm-saved seed, with 75% assessing quality visually rather than through germination or varietal indicators. Only 10% had received any seed-related training, and awareness of seed adaptability and crop rotation was below 20%. Higher SLI scores were positively associated with adoption of certified seed (r = 0.42, p < 0.01) and crop diversification. The study concludes that seed literacy is a critical yet underserved capability that shapes smallholder seed access within dual seed economies. Strengthening farmer-centred seed literacy programmes, revitalising extension services, and supporting community seed banks could enhance access to quality seed and improve smallholder resilience.

Purpose: This viewpoint argues that appropriate farmer classification is key to the success of agricultural development programs. Focusing on South Africa's small-scale agricultural households, who are often referred to as “subsistence” farmer, we show that the nomenclature creates the impression that these farming households live from agriculture, which is not the case. Design/methodology/approach: This study utilized secondary data obtained from Statistics South Africa's General Household Survey. The data were analyzed to illustrate that the majority of small-scale farming households in South Africa engage in agricultural activities primarily to supplement their household food supply and income. Descriptive statistical methods were employed, with results presented through figures and tables to highlight key trends and patterns. Findings: We show that this inappropriate farmer classification has already hampered the success of small-scale agricultural development programs in at least one of the South African provinces, Eastern Cape. We recommend that appropriate and practical farmer classification should be one of the priorities in rural and agricultural development policy and practice. Originality/value: This viewpoint is one of the few articles that amplifies the argument about inappropriate farmer classification with a focus on subsistence farmers referencing the recent Statistics South Africa's data. Peer review: The peer review history for this article is available at: https://publons.com/publon/10.1108/IJSE-04-2025-0401.

South Africa’s land reform program is a cornerstone of efforts to redress historical injustices, guided by the 1997 White Paper on Land Reform Policy and structured around restitution, redistribution, and tenure reform. Three decades into implementation, this study systematically reviews the policy performance from 1994 to 2024, focusing on these pillars and related governance measures. Despite repeated policy revisions and extensive public debate, significant gaps persist between objectives, such as equitable access, tenure security, and poverty reduction—and actual outcomes. Using PRISMA guidelines, 94 peer-reviewed articles were selected from Scopus (1994–2024) alongside key policy documents and official reports. Evidence shows that land reform has consistently fallen short of its targets. Restitution claims remain largely cash-based, undermining tenure security, while redistribution has transferred less than 14% of agricultural land, far below the 30% target. Beneficiaries under the Proactive Land Acquisition Strategy (PLAS) often hold insecure lease agreements, and most households in former homelands lack title deeds, perpetuating vulnerability. The weak institutional capacity, poor coordination, and inadequate post-settlement support further constrain progress. The review concludes that the most fundamental policy priority is establishing a unified national framework that guarantees secure land tenure through the issuance of title deeds, complemented by integrated post-settlement support and transparent beneficiary selection. Strengthening tenure security is essential for enabling investment, improving livelihoods, and achieving equitable and sustainable land reform.

Street vending is widely acknowledged as a vital component of the informal economy, providing income opportunities for rural households. Street vendors operate in highly competitive environments and are constantly seeking effective ways to attract and retain customers, including strategies for pricing their products. Therefore, the study’s main objective was to analyse the pricing strategies employed by vegetable street vendors in two Eastern Cape towns of Mthatha and Mqanduli. Using a longitudinal research design and a quantitative approach, 54 vendors were surveyed on both grant payout and post-grant days. Data were collected through semi-structured questionnaires and analysed using descriptive statistics, Z-tests, t-tests, and chi-square tests. Results revealed that during grant days, vendors employed dynamic pricing (33%) and negotiation-based strategies (33%), capitalising on the heightened purchasing power of consumers. Post-Grant showed that the dynamic pricing strategy and negotiation were more utilised, and there was also a shift towards strategies like cost-plus (16.67%) and competitive pricing (13.3%). Significant price differences were found between the two towns, shaped by local market conditions, competition, and consumer behaviour. By understanding pricing dynamics, extension officers can better assist vendors in improving market access, income stability, and resilience against economic fluctuations.

The smallholder farming sector is crucial in South Africa, serving as a key source of food security and income for numerous rural households. However, in many other African countries, livestock production is a common farming practice that most farmers engage in for various reasons, such as to improve their food security status and well-being. Despite this, certain regions in South Africa witness inefficiencies in smallholder agriculture's ability to alleviate food insecurity, leading some households to engage in off-farm activities to supplement their income. Rural communities grapple with persistent challenges such as unemployment, food insecurity, insufficient income, and limited access to resources and information. This paper aims to assess the role of smallholder livestock farmers on rural household food security, focusing on the Raymond Mhlaba Local Municipality in the Eastern Cape Province of South Africa. The study utilised a cross-sectional survey design with 120 livestock farmers obtained through a random sampling method. Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) software version 22 was used for analysis, employing descriptive statistics. Additionally, a binary logistic regression model was applied to assess the factors influencing food security by smallholder farmers. The study's findings affirm the profitability of smallholder livestock farming and its positive contribution to household food security. Notably, the results reveal that most farmers engage in cattle farming, followed by goat and sheep production. In light of these findings, the study recommends implementing extension services, farmer-based training, and awareness campaigns to enhance rural households' food security and overall livelihoods. Such initiatives are crucial for addressing the existing challenges and fostering sustainable improvements in smallholder farming communities.

In recent years, adaptation to climate change has become a global focus; therefore, the present study was conducted in Raymond Mhlaba Local Municipality to understand the adaptation strategies employed by smallholder farmers to the adverse impact of climate change and to examine the extent to which institutional factors play a role in farmers' decisions to adapt to climate change. Using a multistage research design, data were collected from 120 smallholder farmers by administering a pre-tested questionnaire with both open- and closed-ended questions. The collected data were analysed using descriptive statistics and a binary logistic regression model. The results revealed that farmers employed crop diversification, crop rotation, calendar redefinition, resilient crop varieties, and tree planting as adaptation strategies in response to climate change. The binary logistic regression model results indicated that access to extension services, climate change information, and farmers' organisations influenced farmers' decisions to adopt climate change adaptation strategies. Policymakers should focus on enhancing rural institutional services and increasing climate change education to improve smallholder farmers' capacity in a changing climate.