Jose Fernando Corani

This study examines magnesium potassium phosphate cements (MKPCs) modified with industrial wastes for extrusion-based 3D concrete printing, evaluating the rheological properties (workability, setting time), mechanical performance and printability of formulations incorporating secondary materials: Mg dross waste (up to 20 wt.%, replacing MgO), calcined sewage sludge (up to 10 wt.%, replacing KH₂PO₄), alternative fillers such as glass from municipal solid waste glass and from construction and demolition waste and ground blast furnace slag, benchmarked against volcanic ash. The baseline MKPC exhibited initial/final setting times of 34/109 min, good workability and compressive strengths of 29 MPa (1 day)/28 MPa (28 days). Optimal low-waste mixes (e.g., using municipal glass or 20 wt.% Mg dross) shortened the initial setting to 19–25 min (decreasing 24–42%), reduced the slump by 9–18% yet remained printable at laboratory-scale and achieved 1-day strengths >23 MPa/28-day >31 MPa (comparable or superior). Glass from municipal waste proved most promising, due to superior workability, lighter aesthetics and strength gains, supporting circular economy goals while substantially reducing material costs; higher waste levels compromised fluidity and buildability. Mineralogical analyses confirmed K-struvite formation alongside residual periclase, validating these formulations for upscaling sustainable 3D printing.