Sunyoung Lee

Retaining population is a core condition for the long-term sustainability of rural communities, yet rural out-migration is often treated merely as evidence of local development failure. Agriculturally productive regions may continue to lose population even when output, corporate activity, and local services improve, which raises the question of what kinds of rural development are demographically sustainable. This study examines that puzzle in Akmola, Kazakhstan, a major grain-producing region surrounding Astana. It asks how corporate social responsibility (CSR), rural amenities, economic vitality, and agricultural dependence are associated with net migration across rural districts. The question is important because CSR and agricultural modernization are frequently expected to support rural communities, yet their demographic implications depend on whether they generate broad local opportunities or mainly improve services and production capacity. Using an unbalanced district-level panel of eight rural districts from 2010 to 2023, the study estimates PLS-SEM models under alternative measurement specifications and compares the results with fixed-effects panel estimates and PPML (Poisson) gross-flow models. The findings show that economic vitality is associated with population retention or attraction, while agriculture-oriented development is associated with out-migration. Amenities generally support the retention-oriented interpretation, and CSR is more consistently associated with amenity provision than with migration directly. These patterns suggest that the sustainability of rural communities depends less on agricultural output or CSR-funded services in isolation than on economic diversification and enhanced local livability.

Corporate social responsibility (CSR) is increasingly expected to fill welfare gaps in rural communities, especially in transition economies where firms often provide schools, healthcare, infrastructure, and other quasi-public goods. If CSR improves rural living con-ditions, it should, in principle, help retain population. Yet migration theory suggests a more ambiguous possibility: development may not only reduce deprivation but also ex-pand the aspirations and capabilities that make mobility feasible. This study examines this paradox using district-level data from eight rural districts in Kazakhstan’s Akmola region from 2010 to 2021. Applying Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modeling, we estimate how CSR, amenities, agricultural structure, and economic vitality shape net migration. The results show that CSR substantially improves local amenities, but ameni-ties alone do not generate a strong retention effect. Economic vitality remains the central driver of migration outcomes, while agricultural development has limited demographic effects. These findings suggest that CSR can improve rural welfare without necessarily preventing outmigration. In transition economies, corporate-led development may there-fore operate less as a demographic anchor than as part of a broader process through which rural residents become more capable of pursuing opportunities elsewhere.

Purpose: This study aims to investigate whether and how climate suitability and agricultural research and development (R&D) jointly shape global seed potato trade. Design/methodology/approach: A climate suitability index (CSI) is constructed using a data-driven approach that combines temperature, precipitation, and elevation. The CSI is integrated into a structural gravity framework estimated with Poisson pseudo-maximum likelihood using 556,094 observations across 24,178 country pairs from 2000–2022. Explanatory variables include agricultural R&D intensity, trade policy measures and standard gravity controls. Findings: The results reveal a state-dependent role of agricultural R&D governed by climate suitability. For climatically constrained importing countries, higher R&D intensity raises seed potato imports by 20–23%, confirming its role as absorptive capacity for foreign technologies. However, when local climate conditions are favorable, R&D reduces import dependence by enhancing self-sufficiency. Exporter performance is dominated by ecological endowments, with limited contributions from R&D. Component-level analysis identifies precipitation as the binding climatic constraint: higher rainfall reduces import demand but enhances exporter competitiveness. Originality/value: Building on prior studies that examine climate factors and agricultural R&D largely in isolation, this paper extends the literature by integrating both within a unified structural gravity framework. Combining a crop-specific, data-driven CSI with bilateral trade flows, it provides evidence of a state-dependent relationship between R&D and trade – consistent with complementarity under climate constraints and substitution when climate conditions are favorable – in agricultural input markets.