Zul-Kifl Affolabi

Malaria transmission depends critically on the vectorial competence of Anopheles mosquitoes, which is partly reflected by the quantity of infectious Plasmo

African animal trypanosomiases (AAT) are vector-borne diseases transmitted by hematophagous flies, causing substantial economic losses in sub-Saharan African livestock systems. No multisite, inter-seasonal entomological study has previously characterized vector communities in southern Benin. This study characterizes their spatio-temporal distribution and diversity to inform AAT surveillance. A multisite survey was conducted across 6 communes during 2 contrasting seasons in 2025, using Vavoua, biconical, and Nzi traps deployed for 72 consecutive hours per session. Flies were identified morphologically, and apparent density per trap per day (ADT) was estimated with 95% confidence intervals. Diversity was assessed via richness, Shannon-Wiener, Simpson, and Pielou indices, and a negative binomial GLM tested effects of commune, season, and their interaction on ADT. Tsetse flies were confirmed by ITS1-PCR. Overall, 6,550 flies from 5 genera and 10 species were collected (ADT = 10.11 [95% CI: 8.53 to 11.73] flies/trap/day). Stomoxys niger dominated (92.5%), followed by Stomoxys calcitrans (4.7%), Chrysops distinctipennis (1.1%), and Tabanus par (1.0%); remaining species each contributed <0.3%. Capture rates differed markedly among trap types (18.5, 9.5, and 1.9 flies/trap/night for Vavoua, Nzi, and biconical traps; P < 0.001). Six Glossina tachinoides were confirmed exclusively in Dogbo. ADT varied significantly by commune, season, and their interaction. Diversity was consistently low (Shannon H′ = 0.18 to 0.70), and rarefaction/extrapolation indicated adequate sampling completeness. This first inventory reveals a community strongly dominated by S. niger and supports persistence of a residual tsetse focus in Dogbo. Dangbo, Djidja, and Dogbo emerge as priority surveillance areas, with implications beyond classical tsetse-focused control.

Dans de nombreuses zones d’élevage d’Afrique de l’Ouest, la trypanosomose animale africaine (TAA) persiste alors même que les populations de glossines semblent en régression. Les performances comparées des pièges entomologiques utilisés pour la surveillance des diptères hématophages impliqués dans la transmission de la trypanosomose animale africaine (TAA) restent insuffisamment documentées. Cette étude a évalué l’efficacité de trois pièges notamment piège Vavoua (monoconique), biconique et Nzi dans six communes du Sud-Bénin. Une étude entomologique transversale répétée a été conduite dans les communes de Kétou, Dangbo, Bopa, Dogbo, Allada et Djidja. Au total, 648 sessions (288 monoconiques, 288 biconiques, 72 Nzi) ont été réalisées au cours de deux saisons contrastées en 2025 (petite saison sèche et petite saison des pluies). Les spécimens ont été identifiés morphologiquement sous loupe binoculaire à l’aide de clés standardisées, puis analysés par test de Kruskal-Wallis et modèle linéaire généralisé à distribution binomiale négative. Sur 6 550 insectes hématophages capturés, les Stomoxys spp. représentaient 97,19 % dont Stomoxys niger (95,2 % des Stomoxys). Les glossines étaient rares (0,09 %), toutes identifiées comme Glossina tachinoides. Le piège monoconique présentait l’abondance journalière la plus élevée (AJ = 18,52 individus/piège/jour), soit 9,9 fois celle du piège biconique (1,86 ; p < 0,001) et 2,0 fois celle du piège Nzi (9,46 ; p < 0,001). Le piège Nzi présentait la meilleure efficacité pour les tabanidés (AJ = 1,11 individu/piège/jour vs 0,30 pour le piège monoconique) et la diversité de Shannon la plus élevée (H’ = 0,758). Le modèle binomial négatif a confirmé des effets indépendants significatifs du type de piège, de la saison et de la commune, sans interaction significative entre piège et saison. Le paysage entomologique associé à la TAA apparaissait dominé par les vecteurs mécaniques, les glossines étant résiduelles. Le piège Vavoua a été le plus performant pour la surveillance des Stomoxes, tandis que le piège Nzi était indispensable pour les tabanidés. Une stratégie combinant ces deux pièges semble la plus adaptée à une surveillance entomologique robuste du risque de transmission de la TAA.

African animal trypanosomosis (AAT) remains a major obstacle to livestock productivity in sub-Saharan Africa, particularly in West Africa. In Benin, the epidemiological role of hematophagous flies in trypanosome circulation remains insufficiently documented. This study aimed to estimate the prevalence of Trypanosoma infections in these potential vectors and to characterize their blood meal sources in livestock interface zones of southern Benin. Hematophagous flies were trapped using Vavoua, biconical and Nzi traps in 6 communes during dry and rainy seasons. The sample size for molecular analyses was determined using Cochran's formula, resulting in the selection of 384 individuals. These were analyzed by species-specific PCR targeting T. vivax, T. congolense (savannah and forest types) and T. brucei s.l. Blood meal identification was performed on engorged flies using multiplex PCR targeting cattle, humans, pigs, dogs and sheep. A total of 6550 hematophagous flies were collected across the 6 communes. The overall prevalence of trypanosomes was 13.8% (53/384; 95% CI 10.7-17.6%). T. vivax (6.8%) and T. congolense savannah type (6.5%) were the predominant species, while T. brucei s.l. was detected in only one specimen (0.3%); T. congolense forest was absent. The highest prevalences were recorded in Allada and Djidja (20.3% each). Dry season prevalence (16.1%) exceeded rainy season prevalence (11.8%), without statistically significant difference (p = 0.238). Blood meal analysis showed a predominance of cattle (44.4%), followed by humans (20.4%) and mixed sources. No significant association was observed between blood meal origin and infection status. These results suggest that non-tsetse hematophagous flies may contribute to trypanosome circulation in livestock systems of southern Benin. Their inclusion in trypanosomosis surveillance and control programs is strongly recommended.

Introduction: Ticks, particularly Rhipicephalus microplus , are major blood‐sucking ectoparasites of livestock, causing considerable economic losses both through their direct pathogenic effects and their role as vectors of infectious agents. However, tick diversity, host association and pathogen carriage remain insufficiently documented in Southern Benin. This study investigated tick species composition, anatomical attachment preferences, host breed associations and the molecular detection of selected bacterial pathogens in six municipalities of Southern Benin. Methods: Ticks were collected from cattle and morphologically identified. Community structure was explored using multivariate analysis. A subset of engorged R. microplus specimens was screened for Bartonella spp. and Rickettsia spp. using conventional PCR. Results: The tick fauna was dominated by R. microplus , with additional detection of Amblyomma variegatum and other Hyalomma , Haemaphysalis and Rhipicephalus species. Ticks were mainly attached to ears, axillae and trunk. Spatial variation was observed but should be considered exploratory given the limited number of sampling sites. Molecular analysis detected Bartonella spp. and Rickettsia spp. DNA in tested ticks. Species proportions reflect relative abundance rather than true prevalence, and pathogen detection was based on genus‐level PCR without sequencing confirmation. Conclusion: These findings contribute to the understanding of tick ecology and pathogen circulation in Southern Benin and highlight the need for probabilistic sampling and sequencing‐based confirmation in future epidemiological studies.

Background: Animal African trypanosomosis (AAT) remains a major constraint to livestock production across sub‐Saharan Africa despite ongoing control efforts. Although several studies have assessed farmers’ knowledge, attitudes, and practices (KAP) regarding AAT in cattle production systems, little is known about small ruminant and pig farmers, particularly in Benin. This study assessed farmers’ KAP regarding tsetse flies and AAT and identified the sociodemographic factors associated with disease awareness in southern Benin. Methods: A community‐based cross‐sectional survey was conducted between September and December 2024 among 384 randomly selected goat, sheep, and pig farmers from six communes in southern Benin. Data were collected using a structured, pretested questionnaire administered through the KoboCollect platform. Descriptive statistics were used to summarize respondents’ characteristics and KAP outcomes. Associations between sociodemographic variables and knowledge were assessed using chi‐square tests, while multivariable logistic regression identified independent predictors of knowledge. The results are presented as odds ratios (ORs) with 95% confidence intervals (95% CIs). Statistical significance was set at p < 0.05. Results: Among the 384 respondents, 62.24% were men, 45.57% were aged 41–50 years, and 56.77% had no formal education. Although most farmers (83.59%) correctly recognized tsetse flies, only 16.93% identified them as vectors of animal trypanosomosis, and 81.3% had never heard of the disease. Knowledge was significantly associated with sex ( χ ² = 74.527; p < 0.0001), age ( χ ² = 299.04; p < 0.0001), marital status ( χ ² = 873.37; p < 0.0001), educational level ( χ ² = 219.96; p < 0.0001), and occupation ( χ ² = 214.23; p < 0.001). In multivariable analysis, secondary and higher education, male sex, and agricultural occupations remained significant predictors of knowledge. While insecticides were perceived as the most effective control method (44.53%), only 14.1% of respondents reported using them, and two‐thirds implemented no specific vector control measures. Trypanocides were used by only 11.5% of farmers, whereas reliance on traditional plant‐based practices remained uncommon (2.86%). Conclusions: Small ruminant and pig farmers in southern Benin generally recognize tsetse flies but have limited knowledge of their role in AAT transmission and report low adoption of effective prevention and control measures. These findings highlight the need for targeted awareness campaigns, strengthened veterinary extension services, and integrated One Health approaches to improve AAT prevention and sustainable livestock production in Benin.

Background: Livestock farming is essential for food security and economic resilience in West Africa. However, ticks and tick‐borne diseases (TTBDs) remain a major constraint, causing economic losses and health risks. In southern Benin, where cattle farming is vital, data on farmer’s knowledge, attitudes, and practices (KAPs) toward tick management are limited. This study aimed to assess these KAPs to inform sustainable strategies for integrated tick control. Methods: From August to November 2024, a survey was conducted in six communes in southern Benin. A structured questionnaire was administered to 69 farmers, followed by group interviews assessing their KAP regarding ticks and related diseases. Data collected with KoboToolbox were analyzed in R (v2024.12.0) using descriptive statistics and comparative tests. Results: The analysis revealed that all interviewed farmers were male (100%, 95% CI: [69%–100%]), and most were uneducated (73%–100%), except in Adjarra, where the analysis showed that 70% (95% CI: 45.7%–87.2%) had reached primary education. Extensive transhumant systems predominated in Abomey‐Calavi, Ouidah, Athiémé, and Kétou (100%, p < 0.005), whereas the analysis revealed that sedentary systems were more common in Adjarra (90%) and Dangbo (80%). The analysis further revealed that knowledge of ticks was universal (100%), with farmers identifying Rhipicephalus microplus and Amblyomma variegatum as the most frequent species. Cypermethrin and alpha‐cypermethrin were the most widely used acaricides (> 70%), although their perceived efficacy was low. Artisanal control methods, mainly mixtures of used motor oil and kerosene, were frequently employed (80%–100%). Reported tick‐related effects included wounds (50%–62.5%) and mange (51.7%–66.7%), with significant intercommunal variation ( p < 0.05). Conclusions: Livestock farmers in southern Benin have good knowledge of ticks. However, there is a need for better acaricide resistance to control ticks. Therefore, extensive tick control trainings and the adoption of health policies based on sustainable management practices are necessary to improve the livestock system.