Gaia Loffredo

Background: Hypertriglyceridemia (HiTG) is a frequent metabolic complication in preterm neonates receiving parenteral nutrition (PN), with potential implications for respiratory outcomes. However, predisposing factors and the clinical impact of HiTG in this population remain poorly defined. Objectives: To identify factors predisposing preterm neonates to HiTG development and to assess the association between HiTG and neonatal respiratory morbidity. Methods: A retrospective matched cohort study was conducted, nested within a single-center cohort of neonates receiving routine parenteral nutrition (PN) and on respiratory support, with gestational age ≤ 32 weeks and/or a birth weight ≤ 1500 g, consecutively admitted between January 2015 and May 2023 into the Neonatal Intensive Care Unit (NICU) of ‘Umberto I’ University Hospital, Sapienza University of Rome. HiTG was defined as at least one serum triglyceride (TG) value > 180 mg/dL during the first 7 days of life. TG levels were measured from morning samples collected alongside routine laboratory draws; for borderline values (180–200 mg/dL), a confirmatory sample was obtained after a 4 h lipid-free interval. Neonates with HiTG were classified as cases; newborns without HiTG served as controls, matched 1:1 for gestational age and birth weight. Results: A total of 110 neonates were enrolled (55 cases, 55 controls). HiTG was independently associated with bronchopulmonary dysplasia (BPD) (OR 29.46; 95% CI 5.82–149.07; p < 0.001) and prolonged invasive mechanical ventilation (pIMV) (OR 4.85; 95% CI 1.69–13.89; p = 0.003), after adjustment for surfactant administration and extremely low birth weight. Time to achieve full enteral feeding (FEF) was independently associated with HiTG development (β = +0.153; p < 0.001), whereas parenteral lipid intake during the first week of life was inversely associated (β = −0.081; p = 0.039). Conclusions: HiTG is independently associated with BPD and prolonged invasive mechanical ventilation in preterm neonates. Parenteral lipid intake during the first week was not higher in infants who developed HiTG. Delayed achievement of FEF was also associated with HiTG, but it occurred after the exposure window and cannot therefore be regarded as a predisposing factor. These findings are hypothesis-generating. Randomized trials are needed to assess whether closer monitoring of triglyceride levels and early advancement of enteral feeding in preterm neonates may help reduce BPD.

Background/Objectives: Preterm infants are particularly vulnerable to nutritional deficiencies and electrolyte imbalances during the early stages of extrauterine life. To ensure optimal metabolic support, they often require the early initiation of “aggressive” parenteral nutrition (PN), which is a known risk factor for Refeeding Syndrome (RS), a potentially serious metabolic condition characterized by fluid and electrolyte disturbances, the most significant of which is hypophosphatemia. Hypophosphatemia can impair the metabolism, survival, and function of red blood cells, leading to a reduction in key intracellular metabolites and the development of a metabolic block that alters their quality and decreases their stability. It is therefore hypothesized that RS may contribute to the development of anemia of prematurity (AOP). At the same time, early enteral nutrition (EN) may promote metabolic adaptation and reduce exposure to the complications of prolonged parenteral support, potentially protecting against AOP. The primary aim of this study was to determine whether preterm infants who develop RS are at increased risk of AOP. A secondary aim was to evaluate whether early EN may act as a protective factor against the development of AOP. Methods: This retrospective observational study was conducted on infants with a gestational age ≤ 34 weeks and/or birth weight ≤ 1500 g, admitted to the Neonatal Intensive Care Unit of Policlinico Umberto I—Sapienza University of Rome, between January 2015 and November 2022. Infants diagnosed with AOP were classified as cases, while those without AOP served as the control group. Results: A total of 412 preterm infants were enrolled (110 cases, 302 controls). Refeeding Syndrome was significantly more frequent in infants with AOP (30.9% vs. 11.6%, p < 0.001). In the logistic regression model adjusted for gestational age, RS was independently associated with AOP (OR = 2.81; 95% CI: 1.55–5.10; p < 0.001), along with gestational age ≤ 34 weeks (OR = 7.10; 95% CI: 2.13–24.0; p = 0.001). Early enteral nutrition during the first week of life was associated with a significantly lower risk of AOP (OR = 0.12; 95% CI: 0.029–0.52; p = 0.005). The association between RS and AOP was confirmed in the model adjusted for birth weight (OR = 2.06; 95% CI: 1.16–3.79; p = 0.021). Infants with AOP showed significantly higher parenteral nutrition intake, delayed initiation of enteral feeding, and later achievement of full enteral nutrition compared with controls (all p < 0.001). Conclusions: RS is significantly associated with AOP in preterm infants, likely through pathophysiological mechanisms related to hypophosphatemia. Importantly, early EN may be a protective factor against AOP, suggesting that timely initiation and advancement in enteral feeding may counteract the metabolic derangements associated with intensive parenteral support. These findings support a nutritional approach that prioritizes early and progressive enteral nutrition as a strategy to reduce the risk of both RS and AOP. Further prospective studies are needed to confirm these associations and to define optimal EN protocols for this population.