Raúl Fernández-García

Objectives: To map and critically synthesize the current evidence on electronic textiles applied to sport, exercise, and rehabilitation, focusing on validation approaches, methodological quality, technological maturity, and translational barriers. Design: Scoping review. Methods: Four electronic databases were systematically searched from 2010 to 2025. Eligible studies investigated electronic textiles actively used during physical activity, exercise, or rehabilitation. The methodological quality was appraised using design-appropriate assessment tools, and technological maturity was evaluated based on development status and validation context. The data were synthesized descriptively across application domains, sensing modalities, and translational factors. Results: Twenty studies published between 2016 and 2023 were included, covering joint kinematics or movement analysis ( n = 11), plantar pressure ( n = 5), cardiorespiratory monitoring ( n = 2), sweat biochemistry ( n = 1), and usability-focused evaluation ( n = 1). Electronic textiles often showed promising technical accuracy under controlled conditions. However, most investigations relied on small convenience samples and laboratory-based protocols, with limited evaluation in field or sport-specific environments. Key methodological and translational limitations included insufficient statistical power, inconsistent reporting practices, a lack of control groups, and a systemic absence of data on durability, washability, thermophysiological comfort, and mechanical textile properties. Conclusions: Electronic textiles show potential for unobtrusive biomechanical and physiological monitoring, but their integration into sport and rehabilitation remains constrained by methodological and translational limitations. The field is characterized by a mismatch between rapid material innovation and limited methodological rigor. Future research requires ecologically valid designs, robust validation protocols, and greater attention to long-term reliability, comfort, textile mechanics, and user-centered implementation factors.

Flexible resistive sensors are promising for wearable and ergonomic applications because they can be easily fabricated on textiles or flexible substrates and enable real-time monitoring of human movement and posture, especially in health monitoring systems. This review presents an overview of recent developments in an interdisciplinary way and summarises advances in materials, fabrication methods, and ergonomic applications. A structured literature search was conducted across major databases, including only studies focused on resistive sensing. The selected works were analysed in terms of conductive materials, fabrication techniques (e.g., direct ink writing (DIW) and textile-based methods), and their integration into wearable systems. Flexible resistive sensors are widely used for monitoring joint motion, posture, and physiological signals in healthcare and industrial environments. However, several challenges remain, including limitations in sensitivity, signal stability, material durability, and the need for reliable calibration in real-world conditions. This review highlights current progress and existing limitations and outlines future research directions toward more robust and user-friendly wearable sensing solutions for ergonomic applications.

Wearable technology has increased interest in monitoring vital signs in various medical fields, especially breathing monitoring. However, existing methods to track breathing patterns face challenges, including lack of user comfort, robustness, system reliability, and data processing issues. Therefore, it is crucial to develop user-friendly and reliable wireless methods to overcome these challenges. In this paper, we present a new wireless communication platform for real-time breathing monitoring. The platform consists of a wearable stretching belt with an embroidered loop antenna-based sensor connected to a compact Bluetooth transmitter, with dimensions of 17.145 x 11.303 mm², placed on the abdomen. The proposed antenna-based sensor was designed to transmit data over wireless networks operating at a 2.4GHz frequency. Its sensing mechanism involves detecting a received signal strength indicator (RSSI) wirelessly transmitted by the antenna sensor, which is responsive to strain. Experimental results were conducted to track different breathing patterns from a male volunteer. The system was compared with a Biopac MP36, and the obtained results showed a strong correlation with the measured values. The proposed system demonstrates the ability to detect various breathing patterns, including eupnea, hypopnea, hyperpnea, and Biot’s respiration. Furthermore, its accuracy in detecting these breathing patterns highlights its potential for clinical applications, such as monitoring respiratory health in patients with sleep disorders or chronic respiratory conditions.

A textile woven presence sensor was previously presented to demonstrate its functionality in eliminating some false positives on car seat presence sensors. After studying the functionality, the next characteristic that the textile sensor should demonstrate is its reliability. The woven sensor was prepared to be tested against ageing. The ageing cycle was prepared according to the UNE-EN ISO 17228:2015 standard. Nine woven sensors are prepared, seven of them face the aging test, and two are selected as reference sensors. The characterization of the woven sensor has been carried out through a microcontroller measurement circuit that obtains the cycles to charge the sensor. Comparison of the results obtained shows that the effects of ageing are negligible. The behavior of the aged sensors is similar to that of the reference sensors, indicating that the variations in the values of both aged and reference sensors are provoked by the environmental conditions during the measurements. To support this argument, a statistical study based on a t-Student analysis was carried out. After 4 ageing cycles, the functionality of the sensors remains unaffected. This research proves the reliability of the woven textile sensor, which encourages its use in automotive applications.

Diabetes poses a significant global health challenge, underscoring the urgent need for accurate and continuous glucose monitoring technologies. This review provides a comprehensive analysis of both invasive and non-invasive sensor technologies, with a particular focus on antenna-sensors and their working principle. Key aspects, including the selection of substrates and conductive materials, fabrication techniques, and recent advancements in rigid and flexible antenna-sensor designs, are critically evaluated. Notably, textile antenna-sensors are gaining increasing attention due to their potential for seamless integration into daily clothing. Furthermore, the influence of the human body on antenna-sensor performance is examined, emphasizing the importance of human phantom simulation and fabrication for precise modeling and validation. Finally, this review highlights the current technical challenges in the development of flexible antenna-sensors and discusses their transformative potential in enabling next-generation, non-invasive, and patient-centric glucose monitoring solutions.

This paper presents a study on the repeatability of washing effects on two antenna-based sensors for breathing monitoring. One sensor is an embroidered meander antenna-based sensor integrated into a T-shirt, and the other is a loop antenna integrated into a belt. Both sensors were subjected to five washing cycles, and their performance was assessed after each wash. The embroidered meander antenna was specifically compared before and after washing to monitor a male volunteer’s different breathing patterns, that is, eupnea, apnea, hypopnea, and hyperpnea. Stretching tests were also conducted to evaluate the impact of mechanical deformation on sensor behavior. The results highlight the changes in sensor performance across multiple washes and stretching conditions, offering insights into the durability and reliability of these embroidered and loop antennas for practical applications in wearable health monitoring. The findings emphasize the importance of considering both washing and mechanical stress in the design of robust antenna-based sensors.