Sebastian Maszewski

Introduction: The aim of the research was to determine the levels of dioxins and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) in muscle samples of free-living and farmed cervids and to estimate the health risk to consumers of food originating from these animals. Material and Methods: The research material was collected from red deer ( Cervus elaphus L.) (n = 22), roe deer ( Capreolus capreolus L.) (n = 6) and fallow deer ( Dama dama ) (n = 6). The isotope dilution technique, supported by high resolution gas chromatography coupled with high resolution mass spectrometry was used. Results: The average concentration of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins, polychlorinated dibenzofurans and dioxin-like PCBs in the muscles of free-living cervids was 4.77 ± 2.92 pg World Health Organization toxic equivalency quotients (WHO-TEQ)/g fat, and in the muscles of farmed cervids was 1.85 ± 1.21 pg WHO-TEQ/g fat. Of the tested samples taken from free-living animals, approximately 13% did not meet the requirements of EC Regulation No. 2023/915 EU as they exceeded the maximum limit for congeners. Conclusion: Both frequent and occasional consumption of meat obtained from free-living and farmed cervids do not pose a threat to human health, because estimated intake of the analysed congeners is very low from these sources. However, very frequent consumption of highly contaminated free-ranging wild game muscles can pose a health risk (in this pattern, an adult consumes dioxins at 133% of the tolerable weekly intake (TWI) and a child at 202% of the TWI).

Although consumption of eggs is an essential part of our diet, limited information is available for table eggs other than those laid by hens. The aim of our study was to determine concentrations of polychlorinated dibenzofurans (PCDD/Fs), dioxin-like (DL-) and non-dioxin-like (NDL) polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) in ostrich eggs and meat available on the Polish market, in order to obtain baseline information on the current status of these pollutants in comparison to poultry products. Obtained data were compared with the binding EU limits set for chicken eggs and meat. The levels of individual PCDD/Fs and PCBs congeners varied considerably. The percentage share of total WHO toxic equivalency factor (WHO-TEQ) content indicates the dominant role of PCDD/Fs. High concentrations of PCDD/F and DL-PCBs, in the range of 0.85–74.48 pg WHO-TEQ g⁻¹ fat, were found in ostrich eggs; this exceeds the maximum level permitted for chicken eggs by a factor of up to 15. Eight of the 11 egg samples exceeded the action level for hen eggs. Although the ostrich meat concentrations of PCDD/Fs do not exceed the limit established for poultry muscle (1.75 pg g⁻¹ fat), average contents of PCDD/Fs exceeded almost four times the levels in chicken and turkey muscle. Human exposure was evaluated and the resulting risk was characterised. Taking into account the low average consumption of ostrich eggs, the resulting exposure to dioxins for the general population can be considered as negligibly low. However, the individuals who frequently consume such eggs may be at risk of elevated exposure. Although ostrich products are not consumed frequently, such data are nevertheless useful for food safety purposes. Graphical Abstract

Dried feed materials, such as sugar beet pellets, may be a source of high levels of PCDD/Fs. The studies followed up dioxin congener elimination from contaminated milk (5.02 ± 1.39 pg WHO PCDD/F-PCBs-TEQ g⁻¹ fat) up to 338 days after withdrawal of polluted feed ingredient (4.37 ± 0.25 ng PCDD/F/DL-PCBs-TEQ kg⁻¹ feed). The main objectives of the study were to estimate the length of the time needed to achieve an acceptable PCDD/F milk level as set by European Union law, to track the fate of the PCDD/F congeners, and to assess the potential risk for consumers associated with long-term consumption of contaminated milk. After approximately 200 days, the PCDD/F levels reached ML (2.5 pg WHO-TEQ g⁻¹ fat), then decreased to the action level after more than 300 days (1.75 pg WHO-TEQ g⁻¹ fat) for most of cows. The potential risk of PCDD/F/DL-PCBs intake was characterised by comparing the theoretically calculated weekly and monthly intakes with the toxicological reference values (TRVs). The dioxin intake for the average adult and high-milk consumers did not exceed half of any of the TRVs applied (TWI, PTMI). The consumption of milk by children in the amount recommended by nutritionists (500 ml day^–1) resulted in an exposure equal to 317% TWI and 275% PTMI.

The paper presents the results of testing eggs for the content of dioxins and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), determination of the sources that caused the presence of high concentrations of these compounds which exceeded the acceptable contamination levels, and assessment of consumer health risk caused by the consumption of eggs with excessive contents of investigated compounds. In about 9% of free range eggs and 17% of organic eggs, the content of PCDD/Fs was two- or threefold higher than the acceptable limits, and in some samples the concentration of investigated compounds exceeded the maximum concentration levels. Based on the profile of the compounds, it was confirmed in several cases that their main source was the soil or unsecured refuse. The consumers of eggs and meat produced under these conditions constitute the risk groups, and their dioxin and PCB intake may exceed toxicological reference values.

This article reviews the present state of the science concerning the polybrominated dibenzo-p-dioxins (PBDDs) and dibenzofurans (PBDFs). Everywhere in the world people are exposed to anthropogenic origin chemicals. Some of them are long-lived organic compounds, which persist over the years in the environment. Persistent organic pollutants, such as organohalogen compounds, accumulate in environmental and biological compartments and have adverse effects on the health of humans and animals. Little is known about the brominated and mixed chloro/bromo dioxin and furans. Existing literature suggests that brominated dioxins and furans have similar toxicity profiles to their chlorinated analogues. The exposure data are extremely limited, showing a major data gap in estimating the potential environmental and health risk of these chemicals. The rapid increase in the use of brominated flame retardants (the main source of these pollutants) has raised the level of concern over environmental and health damage from brominated dioxins and furans. It is likely that human as well as wildlife exposure to these contaminants will increase with their greater use. The findings reported here present strong evidence of the PBDDs and PBDFs as an emerging new class of contaminants.