Malgorzata Warenik-Bany

Incidents involving the release of radioactive isotopes into the environment have prompted the adoption of necessary measures to protect the public. A network of official laboratories has been established across Poland to routinely measure the level of radioactive contamination in food. The participation of nine selected laboratories in proficiency testing serves both to demonstrate competence and to confirm the reliability of results. The certified reference material IAEA-478 "Radionuclides in Soil" was used for this testing. The certified values of radioactive concentrations from the certificate (determined based on measurement results performed by expert laboratories) were: 137Cs – 65.0 ± 0.9 Bq/kg, 134Cs – 112.2 ± 1.4 Bq/kg. The International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) methodology was applied to evaluate the results, adopting criteria of trueness and precision that account for the measurement uncertainties estimated by the participants. The results obtained by the laboratories for 137Cs and 134Cs were within the reference values ± uncertainty for these radioisotopes. Based on the obtained proficiency tests results, it can be concluded that the official laboratories perform reliable determinations of 137Cs and 134Cs concentrations.

Introduction: Since 1986, Poland has been constantly contaminated with radioactive ¹³⁷ Cs, and before that, it experienced fallout like most of the world since nuclear bomb tests. As a result of radioactive fallout, vegetation and fungi acquired contamination. The distribution and migration of ¹³⁷ Cs between elements of the environment affect the uptake of the radionuclide by animals and its movement up the food chain. This research was conducted to measure the concentrations of ¹³⁷ Cs in soil and mushrooms and to understand radionuclide transfer. Material and Methods: The research material consisted of mushroom and soil samples obtained from a forest in southern Poland. A total of 30 fungi and 20 soil samples were tested using gamma radiation spectrometry. Results: The highest concentration in a whole-mushroom sample was 1,650 ± 20.40 Bq/kg, in a stipe was 2,192 ± 264.1 Bq/kg and in a cap was 1,323 ± 159.5 Bq/kg. The highest concentration in a soil sample taken from a depth of 0–10 cm was 105.7 ± 13.15 Bq/kg and in a sample from a depth of 10–20 cm was 39.48 ± 5.310 Bq/kg. Conclusion: The obtained results indicate that the transfer of ¹³⁷ Cs occurs from the soil towards the mushroom fruiting bodies, with the highest concentrations recorded in the stipes. Additionally, the cross-section of the transport profile shows the distribution of the tested radionuclide in individual elements of the environment and thus the degree of their radioactive contamination.

Introduction: Polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans (PCDD/PCDFs) and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) are a group of undesirable chemical substances classified as persistent organic pollutants (POPs). They enter the bodies of humans and animals mainly through the digestive tract. Therefore, the safety of the food chain with specific regard to keeping out these POPs depends heavily upon their elimination from animal feed. The aim of this study was to determine trends in PCDD/PCDF/PCB concentrations in three feed matrices over a six-year period. Material and Methods: Altogether, 360 feed samples were analysed using the isotope-dilution technique with high resolution gas chromatography coupled with high resolution mass spectrometry. Analysis of the variability of PCDD/PCDF, dioxin-like-PCB and non-dioxin-like-PCB concentrations by Mann–Kendall test and regression analysis for mean and median values was performed for the three most common feed categories (plant materials, fishmeal and feed mixtures). Results: For two of the three types of feed materials analysed, changes in trends in the concentrations of the tested compounds over time were observed. Conclusion: Considering the very limited amount of feed material analysis data on which to assess trends in dioxin concentrations, it is necessary to continue research on a wider group of feed types.

Introduction: The aim of the research was to determine the levels of dioxins and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) in muscle samples of free-living and farmed cervids and to estimate the health risk to consumers of food originating from these animals. Material and Methods: The research material was collected from red deer ( Cervus elaphus L.) (n = 22), roe deer ( Capreolus capreolus L.) (n = 6) and fallow deer ( Dama dama ) (n = 6). The isotope dilution technique, supported by high resolution gas chromatography coupled with high resolution mass spectrometry was used. Results: The average concentration of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins, polychlorinated dibenzofurans and dioxin-like PCBs in the muscles of free-living cervids was 4.77 ± 2.92 pg World Health Organization toxic equivalency quotients (WHO-TEQ)/g fat, and in the muscles of farmed cervids was 1.85 ± 1.21 pg WHO-TEQ/g fat. Of the tested samples taken from free-living animals, approximately 13% did not meet the requirements of EC Regulation No. 2023/915 EU as they exceeded the maximum limit for congeners. Conclusion: Both frequent and occasional consumption of meat obtained from free-living and farmed cervids do not pose a threat to human health, because estimated intake of the analysed congeners is very low from these sources. However, very frequent consumption of highly contaminated free-ranging wild game muscles can pose a health risk (in this pattern, an adult consumes dioxins at 133% of the tolerable weekly intake (TWI) and a child at 202% of the TWI).

Introduction: This study focuses on perfluoroalkyl substance (PFAS) content in chickens’ eggs and the livers of farm animals. Material and Methods: Chickens’ eggs (n = 25) and the livers of cows (n = 10), chickens (n = 7) and horses (n = 3) were collected from various regions of Poland. Samples were analysed using the isotope dilution technique with liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). Results: The mean lower bound (LB) sum of four PFAS (∑4 PFAS) concentrations (perfluorooctanesulfonic acid (PFOS), perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA), perfluorononanoic acid (PFNA) and perfluorohexanesulfonic acid (PFHxS)) were the highest in cows’ livers (0.52 μg/kg) and much lower in chickens’ (0.17 μg/kg) and horses’ livers (0.13 μg/kg) and chickens’ eggs (0.096 μg/kg). The ratio of ∑4 PFASs to the limits set by Commission Regulation (EU) 2023/915 was via consumption of liver tissue from farm animals (assuming 50 g and 100 g portions) was via the average portion of three eggs led to low exposure of <15% for children and <5% for adults. Conclusion: Neither eggs nor the livers of chickens or horses as analysed in this study are significant sources of PFASs, while cows’ livers might contribute significantly to a child’s overall dietary intake. Further investigation of PFOS in farm animal livers should be conducted.

Introduction: Radioactive caesium-137 occurring in the environment may be taken up by plants and animals and pose a trophic threat to humans. Game animals living in forest ecosystems are very good bioindicators of the level of environmental contamination by ionising radiation. The main species measurably exposed to caesium-137 are the wild boar (Sus scrofa), the roe deer (Capreolus capreolus), and the red deer (Cervus elaphus). The study determined the levels of Cs-137 in muscle samples of these game animals in 2015–2022. Material and Methods: Using gamma radiation spectrometry, 858 samples of game animal muscle tissue were examined: 508 wild boar, 145 roe deer and 205 red deer samples. Results: Concentrations of Cs-137 varied widely (from minimum detectable activity (MDA) values to over 4,000 Bq/kg). In 63.4% of cases, the obtained concentrations exceeded the MDA. The permissible limit (600 Bq/kg for food) was exceeded in nine wild boar muscle samples, whereas it was not even exceeded once in roe or red deer muscle. The average concentration in wild boar was three times higher than in roe and red deer and amounted to 42.84 Bq/kg. The highest concentration of Cs-137 in wild boar muscle was 4,195 ± 372.0 Bq/kg, in roe deer muscle it was 111.5 ± 12.50 Bq/kg, and in red deer muscle was 86.70 ± 3.470 Bq/kg. Conclusion: The seven years’ data indicate that wild boar absorb the most caesium-137 among game animals. The concentrations of Cs-137 in the muscle of game animals in the years 2015-2022 were at a nearly constant level, a very slow diminution being noticeable over time in roe and red deer muscle.

Introduction: Milk from cows, goats and sheep was analysed in terms of content of fourteen perfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs). Material and Methods: Altogether, 73 milk samples from cows (n = 38), goats (n = 20) and sheep (n = 15) were collected from various regions of Poland. Concentrations of analytes were determined using liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). Results: The lower-bound sum of four PFAS (∑4 PFASs) concentrations (perfluorooctanesulfonic acid (PFOS), perfluorooctanoic acid, perfluorononanoic acid and perfluorohexanesulfonic acid) were highest in sheep’s (0.0055 μg/kg), lower in goat’s (0.0046 μg/kg), and lowest in cow’s milk (0.0008 μg/kg). Goat’s and sheep’s milk was statistically significantly more contaminated than cow’s milk. None of the samples exceeded the indicative values set by Commission Recommendation (EU) 2022/1431, and even the maximum detected concentrations were an order of magnitude lower. The most frequently detected was linear PFOS, which was found in 33%, 76% and 93% of cow’s, goat’s and sheep’s milk samples, respectively. Based on mean upper-bound ∑4 PFAS concentrations and average milk consumption, the estimated intake of ∑4 PFASs ranged from 0.153 to 0.266 ng/kg body weight (b.w.) for children and from 0.050 to 0.88 ng/kg b.w. for adults, which indicates that exposure is very low and is merely via consumption of Polish milk does not contribute significantly to the overall PFAS intake of either adults or children.

Introduction: Radioactive contamination of the environment is one of the greatest threats after a nuclear accident due to released radionuclides. From a radiotoxicological point of view, the most important radionuclide is caesium-137. Formed mainly during nuclear explosions, caesium-137 can persist in the soil for many years, from where it constantly enters the food chain. One of the elements of ensuring food safety is the monitoring of its radioactive contamination, mainly with radioactive caesium isotopes. The aim of the study was to determine the content of caesium-137 in food of animal origin. Material and Methods: A total of 1,416 muscle samples from cattle, sheep, pigs, game and fish, as well as chicken eggs and dairy products were examined using gamma-ray spectrometry. Results: Caesium-137 activities ranged from below the minimum detectable activity concentration (MDC) to over 4,000 Bq/kg wet weight (w.w.). Most often, the values did not exceed the MDC or were in a range below 100 Bq/kg. The exception was the muscle tissue of game animals, especially wild boar, where a significant activity of caesium-137 was recorded, the highest of which was 4,136.8 ± 238 Bq/kg w.w. Committed effective doses determined for each matrix ranged from 0.01 to 0.83 µSv/kg, with the highest value determined for wild boar. Conclusion: The calculated exposure doses with values well below the accepted low radiation dose (100 mSv) did not indicate any significant amounts of ionising radiation from the food consumed.