Jane C. Batcheller

With an expanding global clothing and textile industry that shows no signs of slowing, concerns over its environmental impacts follow. Fibre fragments (FFs)—short pieces of textiles that have separated from a textile construction—are a growing area of concern due to increasing evidence of their accumulation in the environment. Most of the existing research on this topic focuses on the role of consumer behaviour rather than the textiles themselves. A systematic literature review is used here to explore the key textile parameters that influence FF release. A search of articles published between 2011 and June 2024 was conducted following the PRISMA guidelines. Three databases (Scopus, Web of Science, and EBSCO) were used, and articles were screened to ensure that a minimum of one textile parameter was manipulated in the study. A total of 52 articles were selected and where appropriate, comparisons between samples used and key findings were made. The textile parameters that were found to reduce FF release include fibres of a longer length and higher tenacity, as well as filament yarns with low hairiness and higher twists. At the fabric level, tight fabric structures and high abrasion resistance show lower FF shedding. Mechanical finishes that reduce the number of protruding fibre ends or chemical finishes that increase abrasion resistance also prove to be beneficial. Lastly, sewing and cutting methods that enclose or seal the textile edge can reduce FF release. While optimal parameters have been identified, they are not applicable to all textile end-uses. Rather, these factors can serve as a guide during future production and be applied where possible to limit FF release.

Biocidal fabrics can reduce the transmission of pathogens caused by contaminated personal protective equipment (PPE). N-halamines are very effective and fast-acting biocides against bacteria and viruses. To explore the relevance of N-halamine compounds for use in PPE and operational clothing and equipment (OCE), this study investigates the impact of an N-halamine-based finish on the functional and aesthetic properties of fabrics used for medical gowns and military uniforms, and examines the effect of conditions simulating the PPE and OCE practical use on the N-halamine-based finish. It was observed that the presence of a water-repellent finish on the fabrics reduced the chlorine loading for the fabric made of hydrophilic fibers, whereas no effect was observed for the polyester fabric. No major effect of the finish application was measured on the fabric strength. In terms of the color, the gown fabric was strongly affected by the finish application and subsequent chlorination, whereas the effect on the military fabric was more limited. The treated fabrics remained within the requirements for Class 1 in terms of flammability. The results showed no impact of low chlorination temperature and different water quality levels on the chlorination efficiency. On the other hand, laundering, repeated abrasion, and exposure to UV radiation and perspiration simulating use conditions reduced the chlorine content in the fabric. These results provide some insight into the strengths and remaining challenges of N-halamine fabric finishes when considering practical applications for protective clothing.

Tear strength is an important fabric characteristic used to evaluate the serviceability of textile materials and their suitability for particular end uses such as protective clothing. In this study, the effect of test specimen size on tear strength was analyzed. The aim was to determine whether smaller specimens could be used to perform tear strength tests without significantly affecting the test results. The ASTM D5587-15, Standard Test Method for Tearing Strength of Fabrics by Trapezoid Procedure, was followed using the standard test specimen size and three smaller sizes. The geometrical characteristics, i.e., trapezoid angle, length of smaller base, and notch length, were unchanged in the smaller specimens, and only the tearing distance through the specimen became shorter as the specimen size was reduced. The test was performed on three fabrics with different structures: plain weave, ripstop, and ripstop with a laminated polymer membrane. Statistical analysis based on the analysis of variance and multiple comparison tests were used to interpret the data. For the plain weave, and ripstop fabrics tested in the warp direction, the results showed no difference in the mean tear strength between the standard-sized specimens and smaller specimens as long as the specimen size did not fall below 55 by 110 mm. Below this size, the distance over which the tear strength was measured became too short for enough high peaks to be recorded and used in calculating the average tearing strength of each specimen. For the laminated fabric tested in both the warp and weft directions, and for the plain weave and ripstop fabrics tested in the weft direction, there were no statistical differences in the mean tear strength between the four specimen sizes, including the smallest size (45 by 90 mm). These results support the use of smaller specimens to accurately determine the trapezoidal tear strength of fabrics when the amount of material available for testing is limited.

Summary: The effects of thermal aging on tensile strength of three Kevlar/PBI blends used in the outer shell layer of firefighters' protective clothing were examined using cone calorimeter exposures of 10‐70 kW/m² for 30‐300 seconds. Lower heat flux exposures of 10‐15 kW/m² did not result in significant change in the tensile strength of the fabrics, but significant losses of tensile strength were first observed as the heat fluxes increased to 20‐30 kW/m² for two ripstop fabrics, and 45 kW/m² for the third fabric. Further decreases in tensile strength were observed with increasing heat flux until there was almost a total loss of original tensile strength following exposure to 70 kW/m². Decreases in tensile strength were explained by comparing fabric temperature measurements made using an infrared thermometer, key temperatures in thermal gravimetric analysis test results, and the appearance of the three fabrics after the exposures. While duration of exposure had little effect on tensile strength after exposures to 10 kW/m², tensile strength decreased with duration of exposure for heat fluxes of 20‐40 kW/m². The effect of duration was greatest for a heat flux of 20 kW/m². These results indicate that one must consider not only the maximum temperature that the fabric reaches, but the complete temperature‐time trace, including the time at which the fabric remains at the maximum temperature, when examining the effects of thermal aging on tensile strength.

Within the kitchen the potential for burn injuries arising from contact with hot surfaces, flames, hot liquid, and steam hazards is high. The chef’s uniform can potentially offer some protection against such burns by providing a protective barrier between the skin and the thermal hazard, although the extent to which can provide some protection is unknown. The purpose of this study was to examine whether fabrics used in chefs’ uniforms were able to provide some protection against thermal hazards encountered in the kitchen. Fabrics from chefs’ jackets and aprons were selected. Flammability of single- and multiple-layered fabrics was measured. Effect of jacket type, apron and number of layers on hot surface, hot water, and steam exposure was also measured. Findings showed that all of the jacket and apron fabrics rapidly ignited when exposed to a flame. Thermal protection against hot surfaces increased as layers increased due to more insulation. Protection against steam and hot water improved with an impermeable apron in the system. For wet thermal hazards increasing the number of permeable layers can decrease the level of protection due to stored thermal energy. As the hands and arms are most at risk of burn injury increased insulation and water-impermeable barrier in the sleeves would improve thermal protection with minimal compromise to overall thermal comfort.

Kitchen workers sustain one of the highest rates of occupational burn injuries through exposure to the various thermal hazards present in institutional and restaurant kitchens. The jacket of the chefs’ uniform has the potential to act as a protective garment, although the extent of the protection afforded by this clothing has not been examined. This study evaluates a selection of current fabrics used in chefs’ uniform jackets to determine their effectiveness in providing protection against hot surface contact, hot liquids and low-pressure steam burns. Four jacket fabrics and two apron fabrics were tested as single layers and in layered combinations. Results showed that single-layered fabrics offered less protection against hot surface contact burns than double-layered fabrics, as an increase in fabric thickness improved thermal insulation of the system. Fabrics covered with a water-impermeable apron layer afforded the greatest protection against hot water and low-pressure steam, while fabrics covered with a permeable apron layer did not provide additional protection. It was found that the addition of the permeable apron fabric layer stored more thermal energy when exposed to hot water, potentially reducing the protection offered by the layered fabric systems.