Tual Sawn Khai

As a nascent field, little is known about eco‐social policy, and to an even lesser extent, within emerging economies. This article examines how eco‐social policies are framed and practiced in this context using a Systematic Literature Review (SLR) of 20 peer‐reviewed articles, selected from an initial pool of 985 records following a multi‐stage screening and eligibility assessment process. The findings reveal that eco‐social policy in developing countries has evolved as a sub‐agenda within ongoing developmental expansion, operating alongside broader responses to structural complexities rooted in poverty, inequality, and labor informality. It is reflected in the central emphasis on preventive‐institutionalized measures (i.e., long‐term planning, community‐based resource governance, just transition strategies ), complemented by compensatory short‐term interventions (i.e., social assistance, job training, and climate‐related risk support ), aimed at realigning welfare regimes with environmental and social welfare objectives. Nevertheless, these policies are not conditioned to supporting industrial decarbonization, but instead function as risk reducers for the just transition and the climate crisis–particularly given widespread informality and (environmental‐related) structural vulnerability. Based on this pattern, the article argues that eco‐social policy in emerging economies most likely follows a green‐buffering rather than a production‐oriented, decarbonization‐driven trajectory characteristic of mature welfare states. The article concludes by outlining limitations and future research directions, calling for empirical testing and contextual refinement of the framework across diverse post‐colonial settings and emerging just transition coalitions.

The Myanmar military coup in February 2021 exacerbated the existing severe humanitarian crisis, resulting in the displacement of over 3.5 million civilians as of June 2025. Additionally, 78,731 individuals sought asylum in neighboring India as of 2023, fleeing the persecution and armed conflict in their homeland. This qualitative study examines the lived experiences and coping mechanisms of Myanmar refugees in Mizoram, India, after the 2021 coup through interviews with camp leaders, refugees and camp helpers. This study findings highlight the challenges faced by displaced populations, including insufficient humanitarian assistance for basic needs, restricted livelihood opportunities, and barriers to accessing healthcare have worsened their psychological distress and well‐being. This study findings also revealed that due to lack of formal mental health support in refugee camps, refugees have to rely on religious coping strategies and communal gatherings as resilience mechanisms. This research findings underscore the need for structured humanitarian interventions, including the enhanced provision of essential services, COVID‐19 vaccination programs, and psychosocial support for displaced Myanmar populations in Mizoram. This study contributes to the refugee welfare discourse in conflict‐induced displacement settings by highlighting the role of international and local aid agencies in addressing asylum seekers' vulnerabilities.

Chapter 9 investigates the barriers to completing registration for obtaining legal work permits and health insurance packages among irregular migrant workers in Thailand. Building on this, the current chapter analyzes the impact of these barriers and identifies the primary obstacles to healthcare access for irregular migrant workers in Thailand. Quantitative findings highlight significant impediments such as high treatment costs, lack of health insurance, transportation expenses, lost wages, and interpreter fees. The qualitative analysis identified 20 subthemes guided by the socio-ecological model, encompassing limited awareness of healthcare services, language barriers, employers’ refusal to grant sick leave, lack of interpreter services, discrimination, unclear policies for treating irregular migrants, and exclusion from health insurance schemes. This study emphasizes the interconnected nature of these barriers, with factors such as financial constraints, legal status, and social support influencing health-seeking behaviors. Notably, older migrants and those with chronic illnesses face additional challenges due to their exclusion from registration and insurance coverage. The fragmented healthcare system and inconsistent local policies further complicate access to care. These findings underscore the urgent need for multilevel interventions that address individual, community, institutional, and policy factors to ensure equitable healthcare access for this vulnerable population.

This book investigates the complex factors that drive migration, barriers to regular channel migration and regularization, and difficulties in accessing healthcare services in Southeast Asia. Taking Myanmar’s irregular migrant workers in Thailand as a case study, it seeks to provide a deeper understanding of the complex factors that drive migration in Southeast Asia by exploring economic, political, and social push factors. It then moves to examine the multifaceted barriers that hinder regular channel migration to Thailand, including financial hardship, lengthy procedures, multifaceted difficulties in obtaining passport and paperwork, the influence of social networks and informal brokers, government official corruption, and exploitation by agencies targeting prospective migrant workers. It sets itself above the existing literature by adopting a comprehensive and interdisciplinary approach, combining rigorous research, qualitative and quantitative data analysis, and firsthand accounts of both migrant workers themselves and numerous other stakeholders throughout the process. This socio-ecological perspective allows for a nuanced understanding of the challenges faced by migrant workers to be developed, and to inform practical recommendations for policymakers, researchers, and advocates. As such, it offers a vital resource for researchers, policymakers, NGO workers, and advocates striving to create a more equitable society, and with interests in migration, Southeast Asia, healthcare, and social policy.

The Thai government has recognized the critical importance of providing healthcare services to migrant workers and has established two key programs to address their needs: the SSS and the MHIS. The SSS, administered by the Ministry of Labor, covers migrant workers employed in the formal sector as well as those who have been regularized through the NV process or the MOU agreements with sending countries. In contrast, the MHIS, managed by the Ministry of Public Health, offers health coverage for migrant workers who are not eligible for SSS, typically those working in the informal sector or without formal work permits. This chapter also examines the Thai government’s immigration management policies and strategies aimed at the temporary regularization of irregular migrant workers. Since 1992, the government has implemented multiple cabinet resolutions and various amnesty programs designed to facilitate the legal status of irregular migrants or victims of human trafficking. The author categorizes these initiatives into ten distinct stages, providing a comprehensive overview of Thailand’s evolving approach to managing irregular migration and healthcare services.

The Thai government enacted a cabinet resolution permitting the registration of irregular migrant workers to attain regular status, access healthcare, and reside legally. This chapter investigates the socio-ecological barriers that prevent MIMWs in Thailand from completing the registration process to achieve regular status. The quantitative survey indicated that a significant proportion (76.4%, n = 304) identified the high cost of registration fees as a primary obstacle in obtaining regular migrant worker status. This was followed by the complexity of the registration process (45%, n = 179) and a lack of knowledge (42.7%, n = 170). Employing a socio-ecological framework, the qualitative findings elucidate the primary challenges impeding registration across intrapersonal-, interpersonal-, institutional-, community-, and policy-level factors. The findings suggest that the registration policy is systematically structured to facilitate temporary or contract-based employment, aligned with labor force demand, while prioritizing national security and economic growth over the protection of migrant workers’ rights.

Thailand has emerged as a primary destination for Myanmar migrant workers, both regular and irregular, owing to its geographical proximity, economic opportunities, and established migration networks. This chapter provides an overview of migration trends among Myanmar workers in Thailand, along with a comprehensive literature review on migrant workers’ conditions, focusing on their living and working environments, wage disparities, vulnerabilities to exploitation, health status, and access to health care. It then outlines the research objectives and the key questions. Finally, the chapter concludes with an overview of the book’s structure, detailing the organization of subsequent chapters and providing definitions of key terms used throughout the book.

This chapter examines the factors contributing to the transition of Myanmar migrant workers from regular to irregular status after migrating through the MOU channel to Thailand. Utilizing the socio-ecological model, this chapter specifically addresses the mechanisms and reasons behind MOU migrants becoming irregular, identifying factors at the intrapersonal, interpersonal, institutional, community, and policy levels through thematic analysis guided by the socio-ecological model. Key factors include financial difficulties in renewing visas, disruptions caused by COVID-19, workplace closures, document confiscation by employers, lack of maternal leave, employment substitution, deception by unlicensed agencies, insufficient pre-departure training, corruption among Myanmar embassy officials, registration scams by unregulated brokers, short validity periods of passports and work permits, restrictions on changing employment, and ineffective labor legislation. This study highlights the complex interplay of individual, social, and structural factors that render migrant workers vulnerable to irregular status, exploitation, and limited access to social protection. The findings underscore the necessity for policy reforms and enhanced coordination between Thailand and Myanmar to safeguard migrant workers’ rights and protection.

The final chapter of this book summarizes and provides a conceptual framework for the research outcomes in relation to the primary research questions. It emphasizes the challenges faced by MIMWs, both before and after migration, concentrating on the main factors driving their decision to migrate and the hurdles they encounter when trying to utilize regular migration pathways. Moreover, it investigates the reasons behind migrants’ irregular post-migration status, obstacles to regularization through official registration, and difficulties they encounter in accessing healthcare services. It also details the study’s contributions, including their theoretical, practical, and methodological impact. Additionally, it addresses these limitations and proposes future research directions. This study is among the first comprehensive studies to explore irregular migration, regularization, and healthcare challenges among migrant workers in Thailand and Asia. By filling a significant gap in the literature, this study reveals the hardships faced by irregular migrant workers and suggests policy reforms applicable globally to encourage safe and orderly migration. Its scholarly contribution lies in analyzing migration dynamics, healthcare access, and practical policy recommendations. These insights are valuable for policymakers, researchers, NGOs, and advocates working toward a more equitable society that protects migrant workers’ rights and well-being.

Irregular migration is a complex, multifaceted phenomenon. Studies on irregular migration can be examined using multiple theoretical frameworks, each providing distinct perspectives on the motivations and experiences of irregular migrants. As a complex and pressing global issue, irregular migration has attracted considerable academic attention in recent years, leading to the development of various theories aimed at explaining its underlying drivers, processes, and consequences. This chapter critically assesses the limitations of several prominent migration theories, including the push-pull model, network and transnationalism theories, dependency theory, world-systems theory, and neoclassical economic theory. The chapter specifically highlights the limitations of existing migration theories in comprehensively addressing the complex interactions among economic, political, social, and environmental factors that influence irregular migration patterns and regularization processes in destination countries.